Quantitative research is the systematic scientific investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships. Quantitative research is widely used in both the natural and social sciences, including physics, biology, psychology, sociology, geology, education, and journalism. The objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories and hypotheses pertaining to natural phenomena. The process of measurement is central to quantitative research because it provides the fundamental connection between empirical observation and mathematical expression of quantitative relationships.

Quantitative research is generally approached using scientific methods which include:

• The generation of models, theories and hypotheses
• The development of instruments and methods for measurement
• Experimental control and manipulation of variables
• Collection of empirical data
• Modelling and analysis of data
• Evaluation of results

Quantitative research is often an iterative process whereby evidence is evaluated, theories and hypotheses are refined, technical advances are made, and so on. Virtually all research in physics is quantitative whereas research in other scientific disciplines, such as taxonomy and anatomy, may involve a combination of quantitative and other analytic approaches and methods.

In the social sciences particularly, quantitative research is often contrasted with qualitative research, which is the examination, analysis and interpretation of observations for the purpose of discovering underlying meanings and patterns of relationships, including classifications of types of phenomena and entities, in a manner that does not involve mathematical models. Approaches to quantitative psychology were first modelled on quantitative approaches in the physical sciences by Gustav Fechner in his work on psychophysics, which built on the work of Ernst Heinrich Weber. Although a distinction is commonly drawn between qualitative and quantitative aspects of scientific investigation, it has been argued that the two go hand in hand. For example, based on analysis of the history of science, Kuhn (1961, p. 162) concludes that “large amounts of qualitative work have usually been prerequisite to fruitful quantification in the physical sciences”. Qualitative research is often used to gain a general sense of phenomena and to form theories that can be tested using further quantitative research. For instance, in the social sciences qualitative research methods are often used to gain better understanding of such things as intentionality (from the speech response of the researchee) and meaning (why did this person/group say something and what did it mean to them?).

Although quantitative investigation of the world has existed since people first began to record events or objects that had been counted, the modern idea of quantitative processes have their roots in Auguste Comte's Positivist framework.

Statistics in quantitative research

Statistics is the most widely used branch of mathematics in quantitative research outside of the physical sciences, and also finds applications within the physical sciences, such as in statistical mechanics. Statistical methods are used extensively within fields such as economics, social sciences and biology. Quantitative research using statistical methods typically begins with the collection of data based on a theory or hypothesis, followed by the application of descriptive or inferential statistical methods. Causal relationships are studied by manipulating factors thought to influence the phenomena of interest while controlling other variables relevant to the experimental outcomes. In the field of health, for example, researchers might measure and study the relationship between dietary intake and measurable physiological effects such as weight loss, controlling for other key variables such as exercise. Quantitatively based opinion surveys are widely used in the media, with statistics such as the proportion of respondents in favor of a position commonly reported. In opinion surveys, respondents are asked a set of structured questions and their responses are tabulated. In the field of climate science, researchers compile and compare statistics such as temperature or atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide.

Empirical relationships and associations are also frequently studied by using some form of General linear model, non-linear model, or by using factor analysis. A fundamental principle in quantitative research is that correlation does not imply causation. This principle follows from the fact that it is always possible a spurious relationship exists for variables between which covariance is found in some degree. Associations may be examined between any combination of continuous and categorical variables using methods of statistics.

Measurement in quantitative research

Views regarding the role of measurement in quantitative research are somewhat divergent. Measurement is often regarded as being only a means by which observations are expressed numerically in order to investigate causal relations or associations. However, it has been argued that measurement often plays a more important role in quantitative research. For example, Thomas Kuhn (1961) argued that results which appear anomalous in the context of accepted theory potentially lead to the genesis of a search for a new, natural phenomenon. He believed that such anomalies are most striking when encountered during the process of obtaining measurements, as reflected in the following observations regarding the function of measurement in science:

When measurement departs from theory, it is likely to yield mere numbers, and their very neutrality makes them particularly sterile as a source of remedial suggestions. But numbers register the departure from theory with an authority and finesse that no qualitative technique can duplicate, and that departure is often enough to start a search (Kuhn, 1961, p. 180).

In classical physics, the theory and definitions which underpin measurement are generally deterministic in nature. In contrast, probabilistic measurement models known as the Rasch model and Item response theory models are generally employed in the social sciences. Psychometrics is the field of study concerned with the theory and technique for measuring social and psychological attributes and phenomena. This field is central to much quantitative research that is undertaken within the social sciences.

Quantitative research may involve the use of proxies as stand-ins for other quantities that cannot be directly measured. Tree-ring width, for example, is considered a reliable proxy of ambient environmental conditions such as the warmth of growing seasons or amount of rainfall. Although scientists cannot directly measure the temperature of past years, tree-ring width and other climate proxies have been used to provide a semi-quantitative record of average temperature in the Northern Hemisphere back to 1000 A.D. When used in this way, the proxy record (tree ring width, say) only reconstructs a certain amount of the variance of the original record. The proxy may be calibrated (for example, during the period of the instrumental record) to determine how much variation is captured, including whether both short and long term variation is revealed. In the case of tree-ring width, different species in different places may show more or less sensitivity to, say, rainfall or temperature: when reconstructing a temperature record there is considerable skill in selecting proxies that are well correlated with the desired variable.

 Examples of Quantitative research

• Research that consists of the percentage amounts of all the elements that make up our atmosphere
• Protest/Survey which concludes that the average patient has to wait 2 hours in the waiting room of a certain doctor before being selected.
• An experiment in which group x was given two tablets of Aspirin a day and Group y was given two tablets of Tylenol a day where each participant is randomly assigned to one or other of the groups.

The numerical factors such as two tablets, percent of elements and the time of waiting makes the situations and results quantitatives

The term quantitative research is most often used in the social sciences in contrast to qualitative research.

(copied from: www.wikipedia.com)

 .

AN ACT PROVIDING FOR THE DEVELOPMENT AND PROMOTION OF CAMPUS JOURNALISM AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES.

Section 1. Title. — This Act shall be known and referred to as the "Campus Journalism Act of 1991."
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Sec. 2. Declaration of Policy. — It is the declared policy of the State to uphold and protect the freedom of the press even at the campus level and to promote the development and growth of campus journalism as a means of strengthening ethical values, encouraging critical and creative thinking, and developing moral character and personal discipline of the Filipino youth.In furtherance of this policy, the State shall undertake various programs and projects aimed at improving the journalistic skills of students concerned and promoting responsible and free journalism.chan robles virtual law library

Sec.  3. Definition of Terms. — 

(a) School. — An institution for learning in the elementary, secondary or tertiary level comprised of the studentry, administration, faculty and non-faculty personnel;chan robles virtual law library

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(b) Student Publication. — The issue of any printed material that is independently published by, and which meets the needs and interests of, the studentry;

(c) Student Journalist. — Any bona fide student enrolled for the current semester or term, who was passed or met the qualification and standards of the editorial board.He must likewise maintain a satisfactory academic standing.

(d) Editorial Board. — In the tertiary level, the editorial board shall be composed of student journalists who have qualified in placement examinations.In the case of elementary and high school levels, the editorial board shall be composed of a duly appointed faculty adviser, the editor who qualified and a representative of the Parents-Teachers' Association, who will determine the editorial policies to be implemented by the editor and staff members of the student publication concerned.

At the tertiary level, the editorial board may include a publication adviser at the option of its members.

(e) Editorial Policies. — A set of guidelines by which a student publication is operated and managed, taking into account pertinent laws as well as the school administration's policies.Said guidelines shall determine the frequency of the publication, the manner of selecting articles and features and other similar matters.chan robles virtual law library

Sec.  4. Student Publication. — A student publication is published by the student body through an editorial board and publication staff composed of students selected but fair and competitive examinations.

Once the publication is established, its editorial board shall freely determine its editorial policies and manage the publication's funds.

Sec. 5. Funding of Student Publication. — Funding for the student publication may include the savings of the respective school's appropriations, student subscriptions, donations, and other sources of funds.chan robles virtual law library

In no instance shall the Department of Education, Culture and Sports or the school administration concerned withhold he release of funds sourced from the savings of the appropriations of the respective schools and other sources intended for the student publication. Subscription fees collected by the school administration shall be released automatically to the student publication concerned.

Sec.  6. Publication Adviser. — The publication adviser shall be selected by the school administration from a list of recommendees submitted by the publication staff.The function of the adviser shall be limited to one of technical guidance.

Sec.  7. Security of Tenure. — A member of the publication staff must maintain his or her status as student in order to retain membership in the publication staff.A student shall not be expelled or suspended solely on the basis of articles he or she has written, or on the basis of the performance of his or her duties in the student publication.

Sec.  8. Press Conferences and Training Seminar. — The Department of Education, Culture and Sports shall sponsor periodic competitions, press conferences and training seminars in which student-editors/writers and teacher-adviser of student publications in the elementary, secondary and tertiary levels shall participate. Such competitions, conferences and seminars shall be held at the institutional, divisional, and regional levels, culminating with the holding of the annual national elementary, secondary or tertiary School Press Conferences in places of historical and/or cultural interest in the country.chan robles virtual law library

Sec.  9. Rules and Regulations. — The Department of Education, Culture and Sports, in coordination with the officers of the national elementary, secondary or tertiary organizations or official advisers of student publications, together with student journalists at the tertiary level and existing organizations of student journalists, shall promulgate the rules and regulations necessary for the effective implementation of this Act.chan robles virtual law library

Sec.  10. Tax Exemption. — Pursuant to paragraph 4, Section 4, Article XIV of the Constitution, all grants, endowments, donations, or contributions used actually, directly and exclusively for the promotion of campus journalism as provided for in this Act shall be exempt from donor's or gift tax.chan robles virtual law library

Sec.  11. Appropriations. — For the initial year of implementation, the sum of Five million pesos (P5,000,000.00) is hereby authorized to be charged against the savings from the current appropriations of the Department of Education, Culture and Sports. Thereafter, such amount as may be necessary shall be included in the General Appropriations Act.

Sec.  12. Effectivity. — This Act shall take effect after fifteen (15) days following the completion of its publication in the Official Gazette or in at least two (2) newspapers of general circulation.chan robles virtual law library
 

Approved: July 5, 1991

PREAMBLE

The Confederation of ASEAN journalists, aware of the responsibility of journalists to the public in each country of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, with a view to achieving peace and progress in the region, hereby promulgates this Code of Ethics for ASEAN Journalists.

1. The ASEAN journalist shall resort only to fair, open and honest means or efforts to obtain news, photographs or documents necessary to enable him/her to carry out his/her professional work, properly identifying him/herself in the process as being a representative from media.

2. The ASEAN journalist shall now allow personal motives or interests to influence him/her or to colour his/her views in a manner that would reflect on his/her professional integrity or would undermine the dignity of his/her profession.

3. The ASEAN journalism shall not demand or accept any payment, gift or other consideration by way of recompense for reporting what is not true, or withholding or suppressing the truth.

4. The ASEAN journalist shall honestly report and interpret the news, making sure to the best of his/her knowledge and ability, not to suppress essential facts or distort the truth through exaggeration or through wrong or improper emphasis.

5. The ASEAN journalist shall give any person aggrieved by his/her report or interpretation of the news the right of reply.

6. The ASEAN journalist shall not violate confidential information or material obtained by him/her in the exercise of his/her calling.

7. The ASEAN journalist shall not identify his/her source, and shall resist any outside attempt to make him/her do so, when specifically so enjoined by his/her informant.

8. The ASEAN journalist shall refrain from writing reports which have the effect of destroying the honour or reputation of a private person, unless public interest justifies it.

9. The ASEAN journalist shall pay due regard to the multi-ethnic, cultural and religious fabric of ASEAN countries.

10. The ASEAN journalist shall not write reports, opinions or comments which would endanger the security of his/her country or foment armed confrontation between his/her country and any other ASEAN country, striving at all times, instead, to promote closer friendly relations among them.

Drafted by the members of the Confederation of ASEAN Journalists' Code of Ethics Committee in Manila, on November 25, 1987, and adopted by the 1989 Seventh Assembly of the Confederation of ASEAN Journalists.

Signed:

Luis R. Maurico (National Press Club of the Philippines)

Dja'far H. Assegaff (Indonesian Journalists' Association)

Abdul Razak (Indonesian Journalists' Association)

Ivan Lim (Singapore National Union of Journalists)

Goh Kay Chong (National Union of Journalists Malaysia)

Manich Sooksomchitra (Confederation of Thai Journalists)

  (SOURCE: www.ijnet.org)

In developing your marketing message, it's very helpful to develop a Unique Selling Proposition, or USP.

What is a USP? The USP very clearly answers the question, "Why should I do business with you instead of your competitors?"

The USP may be used repetitively in your marketing literature to build the customer's or client's identification of your company with your product or service.

There are two major benefits in developing the USP. First, it clearly differentiates your business in the eyes of your current and potential customers or clients. Second, it focuses your team on delivering the promise of the USP, helping to improve your internal performance.

For example, who do you think of when you hear the phrase, "Fresh, hot pizza delivered in 30 minutes or less, guaranteed"?

Dominos virtually took over the delivered pizza market with that USP. Notice Dominos didn't even promise the pizza tasted good.

How do you think a Dominos delivery person would behave compared to a delivery person who works for a competitor without this USP? Do you think the team at Dominos made a considerable effort to develop systems to assure the USP was met?

Beware of the "cutesy phrase." The USP does not need to be expressed in 25 words or less. It could be a detailed set of performance standards. It should be tested to assure the USP addresses a need that is truly important to the buyer.

Would you like some assistance in developing your USP? We would glad to act as a facilitator for you and your team in this process.

CHARACTERISTICS OF EDITORIAL WRITING

An editorial is an article that presents the newspaper's opinion on an issue. It reflects the majority vote of the editorial board, the governing body of the newspaper made up of editors and business managers. It is usually unsigned. Much in the same manner of a lawyer, editorial writers build on an argument and try to persuade readers to think the same way they do. Editorials are meant to influence public opinion, promote critical thinking, and sometimes cause people to take action on an issue. In essence, an editorial is an opinionated news story.

Editorials have:

1. Introduction, body and conclusion like other news stories
2. An objective explanation of the issue, especially complex issues
3. A timely news angle
4. Opinions from the opposing viewpoint that refute directly the same issues the writer addresses
5. The opinions of the writer delivered in a professional manner. Good editorials engage issues, not personalities and refrain from name-calling or other petty tactics of persuasion.
6. Alternative solutions to the problem or issue being criticized. Anyone can gripe about a problem, but a good editorial should take a pro-active approach to making the situation better by using constructive criticism and giving solutions.
7. A solid and concise conclusion that powerfully summarizes the writer's opinion. Give it some punch.

Four Types of Editorials Will:

1. Explain or interpret: Editors often use these editorials to explain the way the newspaper covered a sensitive or controversial subject. School newspapers may explain new school rules or a particular student-body effort like a food drive.
2. Criticize: These editorials constructively criticize actions, decisions or situations while providing solutions to the problem identified. Immediate purpose is to get readers to see the problem, not the solution.
3. Persuade: Editorials of persuasion aim to immediately see the solution, not the problem. From the first paragraph, readers will be encouraged to take a specific, positive action. Political endorsements are good examples of editorials of persuasion.
4. Praise: These editorials commend people and organizations for something done well. They are not as common as the other three.

Writing an Editorial

1. Pick a significant topic that has a current news angle and would interest readers.
2. Collect information and facts; include objective reporting; do research
3. State your opinion briefly in the fashion of a thesis statement
4. Explain the issue objectively as a reporter would and tell why this situation is important
5. Give opposing viewpoint first with its quotations and facts
6. Refute (reject) the other side and develop your case using facts, details, figures, quotations. Pick apart the other side's logic.
7. Concede a point of the opposition — they must have some good points you can acknowledge that would make you look rational.
8. Repeat key phrases to reinforce an idea into the reader's minds.
9. Give a realistic solution(s) to the problem that goes beyond common knowledge. Encourage critical thinking and pro-active reaction.
10. Wrap it up in a concluding punch that restates your opening remark (thesis statement).
11. Keep it to 500 words; make every work count; never use "I"

A Sample Structure

I. Lead with an Objective Explanation of the Issue/Controversy.

Include the five W's and the H. (Members of Congress, in effort to reduce the budget, are looking to cut funding from public television. Hearings were held …)

• Pull in facts and quotations from the sources which are relevant.
• Additional research may be necessary.

II. Present Your Opposition First.

As the writer you disagree with these viewpoints. Identify the people (specifically who oppose you. (Republicans feel that these cuts are necessary; other cable stations can pick them; only the rich watch public television.)

• Use facts and quotations to state objectively their opinions.
• Give a strong position of the opposition. You gain nothing in refuting a weak position.

III. Directly Refute The Opposition's Beliefs.

You can begin your article with transition. (Republicans believe public televison is a "sandbox for the rich." However, statistics show most people who watch public television make less than $40,000 per year.)

• Pull in other facts and quotations from people who support your position.
• Concede a valid point of the opposition which will make you appear rational, one who has considered all the options (fiscal times are tough, and we can cut some of the funding for the arts; however, …).

IV. Give Other, Original Reasons/Analogies

In defense of your position, give reasons from strong to strongest order. (Taking money away from public television is robbing children of their education …)

• Use a literary or cultural allusion that lends to your credibility and perceived intelligence (We should render unto Caesar that which belongs to him …)

V. Conclude With Some Punch.

Give solutions to the problem or challenge the reader to be informed. (Congress should look to where real wastes exist — perhaps in defense and entitlements — to find ways to save money. Digging into public television's pocket hurts us all.)

• A quotation can be effective, especially if from a respected source
• A rhetorical question can be an effective concluder as well (If the government doesn't defend the interests of children, who will?)

source:http://www.geneseo.edu/~bennett/EdWrite.htm

TYPES OF LEAD

The lead (beginning or introduction) establishes the direction your writing will take. A good lead grabs your reader's attention and refuses to let go. In other words, it hooks the reader. Below are some ideas on how to write an interesting lead. Not every type of lead will work for every writer or for every piece of writing. You'll have to experiment with them. Be sure to have a least three sentences in your lead, whatever type it may be.

Question - Open with an interesting question that relates to the main idea.

Example: Have you ever wondered how you would survive if you found yourself alone in the wilderness? How would you defend yourself against predators? What would you eat? Where would you find water?

Riddle - Open with a riddle that the reader can solve by reading further. You may want to give the answer right away or save it for the conclusion.

Example: What textbook has no pages, is miles wide, and smells like a creek? It's been around for millions of years. That's right--Outdoor School.

Announcement-  Open with an announcement about what is to come. However, do not insult the reader by saying something like, "I am going to tell you about..." The reader should be able to figure out what you are writing about. If not, there is something wrong with what you have written, not with the reader.

Example: The trait of voice is very important in writing. However, it is difficult to teach and even more difficult to learn. It is similar to atheletic ability because it is more like a talent than a skill.

Bold and Challenging Statement - A bold and challenging statement is similar to an announcement, but is meant to cause some people to disagree with what you say. It's like one side of an argument. It can be an opinion, but don't immediately state that it is your opinion.

Example: Using horses and cattle in the sport of rodeo is animal abuse. What makes it more aggravating is that it is legal. According to the law, there is nothing wrong with chasing an animal down, tightening a rope around its neck, knocking it to the ground, and tying its legs together so it cannot move.

Definition- Open with a definition of the term you are discussing. It can be your own or come from a dictionary or textbook. If you take it from a dictionary or textbook, be sure to use quotation marks and give credit to the source.

Example: According to Webster's Dictionary, a government is the authority that serves the people and acts on their behalf. How can the government know what the people want if the people do not vote? If we do not vote, the government may act on its own behalf instead of on the behalf of the people.

Opinion-Open with your opinion about the topic. This is similar to a bold and challenging statement, but you let the reader know that it is your opinion right away.

Example: In my opinion, the driving age should be lowered to fourteen. Most teenagers are more responsible than adults give us credit for being. Just because we are teenagers does not mean we are irresponsible and dangerous.

Well Known Quotation or Quotation from a Famous Person- Open with a quotation that is well known or from a famous person. Be sure to put quotations around the quotation and give credit to the person who said it. Of course, the quotation must be directly related to your topic. A good source is a book of quotations. Look in the library or ask your teacher.

Example: President John F. Kennedy once said, "Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country." I think today's Americans have forgotten Kennedy's message. We expect our country to take care of us, but we are not taking care of our country.

Quotation Not from a Famous Person- Open with a quotation from a person that is not famous. It could be a character from the story or someone you know personally. You still must put it in quotation marks and give credit to the person who said it.

Example: When I was a child, I was given the "mother's curse" by my mom. Oh, it is not anything mean or evil. She just said, "When you have children, they will act just like you." I laughed. Well, now that I have children of my own, I am not laughing anymore. The "mother's curse" really works!

Personal Experience- open with something that has happened to you, or a personal experience. It could be a part of the story, or it could be something that is not a part of what you are writing about but still relates to the topic.

Example: Although I did later in my room, I never cried at my grandfather's funeral. I guess that is why I felt so sad for the little girl standing next to her grandma's coffin. She looked so lost and afraid.

Figurative Language- Begin with a simile (comparison using like or as), metaphor (comparison saying one thing is another thing), personification (giving something nonhuman human qualities), or hyperbole (exaggeration.) The figurative language must relate directly to your topic.

Example: The pencil sharpener was always hungry. It ate my pencil every time I went to sharpen it. It never seemed to do this to anyone's pencil but mine. What was so special about my pencils?

Enumerated General Statement- Begin with a general statement containing three or so ideas about your topic. The information given in the lead is general, not specific. The specific details that support the general statement will appear later in the paper.

Example: There are many characteristics that a good teacher possesses. However, the three most important characteristics include being a good listener, being knowledgeable about the subject, and having a kind heart. All of the teachers who postively influenced me had all three of those characteristics in common.

Writing Effective Leads

Five Ws and an H (or, finding a lead by emphasizing the most important news element):

1. WHO: President Clinton will visit Cuba next week at the request of Caricom nations.
   
2. WHAT: Lightning struck the upper deck at Wrigley Field last night while the Cubs were playing in San Francisco.
   
3. WHEN: Midnight tonight is the deadline for tax returns, but the local post office is ready to accommodate procrastinators.
   
4. WHERE: The Emerson and Towanda intersection is officially the most dangerous crossing in Bloomington, according to the Illinois Bureau of Transportation.
   
5. WHY: Because she could correctly spell "ostentatious," Lisa Wheeler will go to the state Spelling Bee finals.
   
6. HOW: By hitting his 50th home run last night for the fourth year, Chicago Cubs slugger Sammy Sosa etched his name in the baseball record books alongside Babe Ruth and Mark McGwire.

­ Common Types of News and News-Feature Leads (more ways to "lead" the reader into the story)

1. Straight Summary Lead: Twenty-eight passengers and a crew of four were killed last night when a single-engine plane crashed four miles south of Bloomington.
2. Picture or Dramatic Lead: Mourners lined up for miles yesterday in the pouring rain to take one last look and lay flowers near the coffin of Mother Teresa, who lived among Calcutta's sick and needy for 35 years.
3. Background Lead: After two weeks of picketing, United Auto Workers put down their signs yesterday following an agreement which would give members a 10 percent raise.
4. Quotation Lead: "I don't want to sound anti-American," poet Derek Walcott told his audience at Illinois Wesleyan University, "but this country is the only nation that taxes the Nobel Prize."
5. Ironic or Contrast Lead: St. John's Church survived the 1868 fire that destroyed most of Bloomington, and it weathered firebombs thrown in anger during the sixties. But it crumbled last night under the weight of snow from yesterday's freak storm.
6. Punch Lead: Two muskrats have taken over Holiday Pool, evading would-be capturers and forcing residents to look for other ways to survive the latest heat-wave.
7. Quotation Lead: "When a man bites another human being's ear, he should be banned from boxing for life," Evander Holyfield said, pressing a handkerchief against the side of his bloodied head.

Common mistakes:

1. The Hidden Lead. Does the lead zero in on the latest and most important news, or is the real heart of the story (and therefore a better lead) hidden elsewhere in the story?
2. The Overly Dense Lead. Does the lead have too many of the W's and H? Does it have too many proper nouns or too much data?
3. The Dull Lead. Given your lead, would you really read this article if you hadn't written it?

Assignment: Write three different leads for each of the three campus news ideas you came up with. Since the exercise is to help you develop a sense of which leads are most effective in certain situations, and since you obviously haven't researched your story ideas yet, you are free to "make up" what you need for the leads. Be prepared to talk about which are the most successful--and why.

(Definition from Wikipedia.com)

Mass communication is the term used to describe the academic study of various means by which individuals and entities relay information to large segments of the population all at once through mass media.

In the United States, many university journalism departments evolved into schools or colleges of mass communication or "journalism and mass communication," as reflected in the names of two major academic organizations. In addition to studying practical skills of journalism, public relations or advertising, students also may major in "mass communication" or "mass communication research." The latter is often the title given to doctoral studies in such schools, whether the focus of the student's research is journalism practice, history, law or media effects. Departmental structures within such colleges may separate research and instruction in professional or technical aspects of newspaper and magazine publishing, radio, television, and film. Mass communication research includes media institutions and processes, such as diffusion of information, and media effects, such as persuasion or manipulation of public opinion.

With the Internet's increased role in delivering news and information, mass communication studies -- and media organizations -- have increasingly focused on the convergence of publishing, broadcasting and digital communication.

The academic mass communication discipline historically differs from media studies and communication studies programs with roots in departments of theatre, film or speech, and with more interest in "qualitative," interpretive theory, critical or cultural approaches to communication study. In contrast, many mass communication programs historically lean toward empirical analysis and quantitative research -- from statistical content analysis of media messages to survey research, public opinion polling, and experimental research, including an increasing interest in "New Media" and "Computer Mediated Communication." However, the nature of these programs varies from university to university.

Graduates of Mass Communication programs work in a variety of fields in traditional news media and publishing, advertising, public relations and research institutes.

Such programs are accredited by the Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (ACEJMC).

The Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (AEJMC) is the major membership organization for academics in the field, offering regional and national conferences and refereed publications.

The International Communication Association (ICA) and National Communication Association (formerly the Speech Communication Association) include divisions and publications that overlap with those of AEJMC, but AEJMC historically has stronger ties to the mass communication professions in the United States.